Electroporation

Electroporation is a physical method that temporarily increases cell membrane permeability by exposing cells to short, high-intensity electric pulses. The applied field induces nanoscale pores in the lipid bilayer, allowing macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, drugs, or dyes to enter the cell. If the pulses are calibrated to allow membrane resealing, the effect is reversible and cells survive; with more intense or repeated pulses, permeabilization can become irreversible and cause cell death.

The technique was developed in the late 20th century and has since been adapted to many cell types and tissues. Pulse parameters vary widely, typically microseconds to milliseconds in duration and voltages sufficient to generate field strengths from hundreds to thousands of V/cm. Applications include in vitro transfection of plasmids, in vivo gene delivery, and tissue electropermeabilization with specialized electrodes.

Applications include genetic engineering, vaccine delivery, cancer therapy, and food processing. In oncology, reversible electroporation enhances drug or gene uptake in tumors (electrochemotherapy), while irreversible electroporation can ablate tissue non-thermally. In the food industry, pulsed electric fields provide microbial inactivation and improved product quality. Delivery efficiency depends on cell type, medium conductivity, temperature, and electrode geometry.

Limitations include variable efficiency across cells, potential thermal effects, and the need for careful optimization to minimize damage and ensure uniform treatment. Safety, reproducibility, and regulatory considerations are important for clinical and industrial use.