permeabilization

Permeabilization is a laboratory technique that increases the permeability of cellular membranes to allow molecules that normally cannot cross the membrane to enter or exit cells. The process is widely used in microscopy and molecular biology to enable staining, labeling, or delivery of probes and macromolecules into the cell interior.

In fixed cells, permeabilization typically uses detergents or solvents to disrupt the lipid bilayer, granting antibodies access to intracellular epitopes for immunocytochemistry and immunohistochemistry. In contrast, live-cell permeabilization is generally avoided because it disrupts viability, though reversible methods exist for transient delivery in certain drug- or gene-transfer experiments.

Common chemical methods include detergents such as Triton X-100, NP-40, and saponin, as well as alcohols or solvents that dissolve lipids. Physical methods such as freeze-thaw cycles, electroporation, and microinjection can also create temporary pores. In bacteria, permeabilization may involve chelating agents like EDTA to disrupt the outer membrane and enhance uptake of antibiotics or dyes.

Key considerations include the fixative used, the type and concentration of permeabilizing agent, and incubation time, all of which affect antigen preservation and cellular ultrastructure. Over-permeabilization can wash out soluble components or introduce artifacts, while under-permeabilization can prevent labeling of intracellular targets. Proper controls and careful optimization are essential.