Colonization

Colonization is the process by which a body of people establishes control over a territory beyond its original borders, often accompanied by settlement and the imposition of political, economic, and social systems. In biology, colonization refers to the establishment of a population of a species in a new habitat where it can reproduce and persist.

Historically, colonization has taken many forms. Ancient civilizations established colonies to secure resources and trade routes. The Mediterranean saw Greek and Phoenician colonization; the Roman Empire extended provincial control. From the 15th century, European powers created overseas empires through exploration, conquest, and settlement, peopling the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Colonial arrangements ranged from settler colonies with large immigrant populations to extractive spheres that depended on resource extraction and enslaved labor, as well as administrative and trading models managed by chartered companies.

Motivations included economic gain, access to minerals and land, strategic advantage, population growth, and religious or civilizational aims. Methods combined military force, treaties, coercive governance, missionary activity, and the establishment of legal and educational systems designed to legitimize rule.

Colonization produced uneven outcomes. Indigenous populations were displaced or decimated; languages and cultures were altered or eroded; economies were reoriented toward metropolitan centers. Colonial infrastructures, legal systems, and borders persisted after independence, while inequalities and resource extraction patterns shaped postcolonial development.

Decolonization after World War II led to independence for many colonies, though debates over lingering neocolonial influence and global inequality continue. In biology and ecology, colonization describes how species establish and expand in new habitats, including invasive species, with lasting ecological consequences.