Byzantines

The Byzantines were the inhabitants and rulers of the Byzantine Empire, the eastern continuation of the Roman state that endured from the 4th century CE until 1453 CE. The term derives from Byzantium, the ancient Greek city later renamed Constantinople, now Istanbul. Residents commonly identified as Rhomaioi (Romans) and spoke Greek as the dominant language in later centuries, with Latin used in official contexts earlier on.

The empire was governed as an autocratic, imperial state centered on the emperor, who combined political and religious authority. Its administration featured centralized taxation, a sophisticated bureaucratic framework, and a legal system rooted in Roman law, notably the Corpus Juris Civilis compiled under Justinian I in the 6th century. The imperial capital, Constantinople, was a major political, economic, and cultural hub.

Culture and religion shaped Byzantine society. The Byzantines preserved Greco-Roman literary and artistic traditions and produced distinctive architectural achievements, such as Hagia Sophia. The state religion was Eastern Orthodox Christianity, and church and state were closely linked. Relations with the Latin West varied, culminating in the Great Schism of 1054. The empire also encountered and adapted to interactions with Persian, Arab, Slavic, and later Turkic powers.

Economy and military power underpinned Byzantine resilience. The economy relied on agriculture, trade, and urban craftsmanship, with Constantinople serving as a key commercial hub connecting Europe and Asia. Military forces included professional armies and the thematic system in earlier periods, as well as innovations such as the use of Greek fire in naval warfare.

Decline and fall came after the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople in 1204, which fragmented the empire and culminated in the recovery of Constantinople by 1261 only to fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. Byzantine heritage influenced Orthodox Christianity, Roman law, art, and scholarship across Southeast Europe and the Mediterranean.