Antibiotike

Antibiotike are medicines used to treat infections caused by bacteria. They work either by killing bacteria (bactericidal) or by inhibiting their growth (bacteriostatic). They are not effective against viral infections and should be prescribed based on medical diagnosis and local guidelines.

Classification and mechanisms: Antibiotics can be grouped by their mechanism of action or spectrum. Beta-lactams such as penicillins and cephalosporins disrupt bacterial cell wall synthesis. Macrolides and clindamycin inhibit protein synthesis. Tetracyclines also affect protein synthesis. Fluoroquinolones disrupt DNA replication. Other agents affect DNA or metabolic pathways. Some are broad-spectrum, affecting many species; others are narrow-spectrum.

History and development: The first true antibiotic, penicillin, was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928 and later mass-produced in the 1940s. Since then, numerous classes have been developed, expanding treatment options but also contributing to resistance challenges.

Resistance and stewardship: Bacteria can become resistant through enzymes that destroy antibiotics, changes in drug targets, or increased efflux. Misuse and overuse in human medicine and agriculture accelerate resistance. Antimicrobial stewardship promotes correct selection, dose, duration, and indications to preserve effectiveness.

Safety, regulation, and use: Antibiotics can cause adverse effects such as allergy, nausea, rash, and diarrhea; more serious risks include Clostridioides difficile infection. They should be used only when indicated, with appropriate diagnostic testing, and patients should complete the prescribed course unless advised otherwise.