1660s

The 1660s was a decade of political restoration, disaster, and scientific development in Europe and the Atlantic world. In England, 1660 marked the Restoration of the monarchy as Charles II returned from exile. The following years saw the reassertion of Anglican orthodoxy through the Clarendon Code, including the Act of Uniformity (1662) and related legislation (Conventicle Act 1664, Five Mile Act 1665), which restricted religious dissent and reinforced the Church of England. The Royal Society, a key institution of the Scientific Revolution, was founded in 1660.

During this decade England faced major disasters, including the Great Plague in 1665–66 and the Great Fire of London in 1666, which destroyed large parts of the capital and spurred rebuilding efforts.

Europe and the Atlantic world were shaped by ongoing conflicts and colonial expansion. The Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) pitted England against the Dutch Republic, culminating in the Treaty of Breda in 1667. In 1664 England captured New Netherland from the Dutch and renamed it New York. In 1668, the Triple Alliance formed among England, Sweden, and the Dutch to curb Louis XIV’s expansion, reflecting shifting alliances in the European balance of power.

In science and culture, the decade saw continued growth of experimental science and communication, notably the Royal Society being chartered in 1662 and promoting a new spirit of inquiry. Across fields, observers advanced early modern science and natural philosophy, laying groundwork for later developments.