zoonotic

Zoonotic refers to diseases or infections that can be transmitted between animals and humans. The term encompasses viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungi, and, in some contexts, prions. Zoonoses can be transmitted through direct contact, environmental exposure, or via vectors such as arthropods.

Many zoonoses originate in wildlife and spill over to humans through domestic animals or environmental interfaces. Reservoir hosts maintain the pathogen in nature; vectors such as mosquitoes or ticks can transmit to humans. Transmission can occur through bites, handling of animals or animal products, ingestion of contaminated meat or milk, or inhalation of aerosols.

Rabies, primarily transmitted by bites from infected mammals; influenza A viruses circulate in birds and pigs and occasionally infect humans; Salmonella and Campylobacter can be acquired from contaminated animal products; West Nile virus is transmitted by mosquitoes from birds to humans; Ebola and other filoviruses have natural reservoirs in bats.

Public health responses emphasize surveillance in animals and humans, veterinary public health, vaccination of domestic animals (e.g., rabies vaccines for dogs), food safety measures, hygiene, and vector control. One Health is a framework recognizing the linkages of human, animal, and environmental health.

Zoonoses pose ongoing challenges due to ecological changes, wildlife trade, deforestation, climate change, and urbanization, which can alter pathogen spillover risk. Preventing zoonoses requires integrated, interdisciplinary efforts and international collaboration.