venoms

Venoms are complex mixtures of bioactive molecules produced by certain animals and delivered to the target through specialized structures such as fangs, stingers, or nematocysts. Unlike poisons, which cause harm when touched or ingested, venoms are injected into prey or potential threats to immobilize, kill, or deter.

Venoms typically consist of proteins, peptides, enzymes, and small molecules that disrupt physiological processes by targeting ion channels, receptors, or cellular membranes. Many components act synergistically, producing rapid and varied effects such as paralysis, pain, tissue damage, or cardiovascular collapse. The exact composition and potency of a venom can vary within a species, with differences influenced by age, diet, geography, and environment.

Venomous animals span several groups, including snakes (vipers with hemotoxic venoms and elapids with neurotoxic venoms), scorpions, spiders, wasps, cone snails, jellyfish, and some fish and cephalopods. Venom complexity ranges from simple, single-toxin systems to sophisticated cocktails with dozens of active components. Evolutionary pressures from prey capture and defense drive rapid diversification of venom components, often through gene duplication and rapid mutation of venom gene families.

Medically, envenomation is a clinical concern requiring prompt treatment, often with antivenoms and supportive care. First aid emphasizes immobilization and rapid medical transport, avoiding tourniquets, incisions, or freezing. Venoms have also provided valuable tools for research and medicine; examples include captopril, derived from bradykinin-potentiating peptides in Brazilian pit viper venom, and ziconotide, a cone snail peptide used for chronic pain.