vakuumniveau
Vakuumniveau, or vacuum level, is the reference energy for an electron in vacuum just outside a material surface. It represents the energy an electron would have if it were free and at rest in vacuum, and it is used as an absolute energy reference in solid-state and surface science. In practice, Evac is treated as the energy zero to compare electronic states of different materials.
A central related quantity is the work function, the energy required to remove an electron from the
In heterostructures and interfaces, alignment of vacuum levels between materials can influence band offsets and charge
Measurement and estimation of the vacuum level involve techniques such as photoemission spectroscopy (for example, ultraviolet