spaceplane

A spaceplane is a vehicle designed to operate in both Earth's atmosphere and outer space, capable of taking off from the surface, reaching space, and returning to land like an airplane. The concept combines features of aircraft with rocket-powered spaceflight, and most designs emphasize reusability and rapid turnaround. Spaceplanes are typically either orbital, aiming to reach and return from low Earth orbit, or suborbital, making a shorter flight into space before landing.

Historical examples include the Space Shuttle (NASA), which launched on rocket boosters, carried out orbital missions, and landed on a conventional runway, and Buran (Soviet), which was similar in design but flew unmanned. Suborbital and experimental spaceplanes include Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo (air-launched from a carrier aircraft) and X-37B (an unmanned, reusable orbital test vehicle operated by the United States Space Force). The Dream Chaser is a planned crewed orbital cargo vehicle under development by Sierra Nevada Corporation.

Key design considerations include thermal protection during reentry, wing and fuselage aerodynamics for precise gliding on return, and propulsion integration for ascent and orbital insertion. Most orbital spaceplanes require some form of staging: either air launch or a dedicated rocket stage to reach orbit, followed by reentry and landing.

Despite potential advantages such as reusability, on-demand access to space, and cargo return capability, spaceplanes face high technical risk and cost. Few have achieved sustained operational use, and many programs were canceled or transformed into other architectures. Research and recent programs continue to explore optimized thermal protection, lightweight structures, and autonomous flight capabilities.