pollinating

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organ of a flower, the anther, to the female organ, the stigma, of the same or another flower. When pollen is deposited on a compatible stigma, pollen tubes grow through the style to reach ovules in the ovary, enabling fertilization and seed development. Pollination is the first step in sexual reproduction for many plants, and fertilization occurs only after successful pollination.

Pollination can occur through biotic or abiotic means. Biotic pollination involves living agents such as bees, butterflies, moths, birds, bats, and some beetles that move pollen as they feed on nectar or pollen. Abiotic pollination relies on nonliving forces, primarily wind, and in some aquatic environments, water currents, to transfer pollen.

Pollen compatibility and plant reproductive strategies influence pollination outcomes. Some plants allow self-pollination, while others require cross-pollination to maximize genetic diversity. Self-incompatibility systems prevent self-fertilization. Pollen viability, timing, and the spatial arrangement of flowers affect pollination success and subsequent fruit or seed yield.

Pollination is a key ecosystem service and agricultural input. Many crops depend on pollinators for fruit, seed, or nut production, and pollination underpins biodiversity and food webs. Threats to pollination include habitat loss, pesticide exposure, climate change, and fragmentation, which can reduce pollinator populations and disrupt plant reproduction. Measures to support pollination include preserving diverse flowering habitats, reducing pesticide use, and promoting landscape connectivity.