phalanxes

A phalanx is a dense infantry formation used in ancient Greek warfare, characterized by a compact body of heavily armed infantrymen (hoplites) standing shoulder to shoulder in ranks. The front line carried overlapping large shields (hoplons) to form a nearly continuous shield wall, while spears projected outward to repel attackers. Behind the front, soldiers pressed forward to maintain depth and cohesion. The formation emphasized collective discipline over individual maneuverability.

In the classic hoplite phalanx, front ranks maintained shield contact while advancing, and the depth of the formation typically ranged from eight to sixteen ranks. The front ranks bore the brunt of combat with thrusts and shield pressure, while rear ranks supported and replenished losses. Success depended on steady formation, good drill, and favorable terrain; breach of cohesion or exposure of the sides could lead to rapid defeat.

A later variation, the Macedonian phalanx, used much longer spears called sarissas, often four to six meters long, and could form a deeper, more extended line. With support from cavalry and complementary infantry, the Macedonian system sought greater long-range reach and flexibility in conjunction with tactical innovations of Philip II and Alexander the Great.

Over time, phalanxes declined with the rise of more flexible Roman tactics and new infantry and cavalry tactics. Nonetheless, the concept of dense, shielded, spear-wielding infantry influenced military thinking through antiquity and into later periods, and the term is used to describe a family of close-ordered formations in ancient warfare.