numerales

Numerals are the symbols used to express numbers in written form. They encompass both the digit symbols of positional numeral systems (for example, 0 through 9 in the decimal system) and the standalone symbols of non-positional systems (such as Roman numerals). Today, the most common numerals are the decimal digits 0–9, used in a base-10 place-value system. The term Arabic numerals refers to these digits as used today, a form that originated in India, was refined by Arab scholars, and spread to Europe in the Middle Ages.

Numerals differ from number names (one, two, three) and from the abstract concept of a number. They can also include ordinal forms (first, second) used to indicate order. In many contexts, multiple numeral systems coexist, with Arabic numerals prevailing for most calculations and listing, while others appear in specialized or traditional uses.

Historical overview: Early counting relied on tally marks. Later systems such as cuneiform and Egyptian hieratic used distinct symbols for powers of ten. The Hindu-Arabic numeral system introduced a true positional base-10 notation with a symbol for zero, enabling simple arithmetic and large-number notation. European adoption, from the 12th to 15th centuries, led to global standardization. Roman numerals, using letters such as I, V, X, L, C, D, M, remain in use for certain contexts but are non-positional and less practical for computation.

Contemporary usage: Numerals are encoded in digital and print typography through standards like Unicode, which includes various numeral scripts (Arabic-Indic digits, Devanagari digits, Chinese numerals and others). While Arabic numerals are dominant in most scientific and commercial work, many cultures also retain traditional numeral forms in specific contexts or scripts. Numerals underpin arithmetic, data encoding, and cross-cultural communication.