numerals

Numerals are symbolic representations of numbers used within a numeral system. A numeral is a single character or a sequence of characters that denotes a quantity, while a numeral system provides rules for how those symbols encode values and how operations are performed. Numerals and their systems are central to counting, writing, and arithmetic.

In base-10 notation, the most familiar system in daily life, the digits 0 through 9 express values using place value. Other bases use different sets of digits and rules, such as binary (0 and 1) or hexadecimal (0–9 and A–F). Modern computing and international text typically rely on Unicode encoding for numerals across scripts.

Historically, Hindu–Arabic numerals originated in India and were transmitted to the Islamic world, where the concept of zero and place-value notation were developed and refined. They reached Europe by the late medieval period, gradually replacing Roman numerals for most purposes. Roman numerals remain in use in certain contexts, such as clock faces and monarch names, with additive and subtractive conventions (I, V, X, L, C, D, M).

Many writing traditions use their own numeral glyphs. Examples include Devanagari digits (०–९), Arabic-Indic digits (٠–٩), and Eastern Arabic-Indic digits (٠–٩). Some East Asian systems employ Chinese numerals in formal or ceremonial contexts. In practice, Western digits are dominant in international communication, while local scripts retain numerals in regional usage.

Numerals appear in dates, prices, measurements, IDs, and calculations. They are encoded in Unicode alongside the letters of the various scripts, enabling multilingual digital texts. Understanding numeral types helps distinguish the symbol from the value it represents and clarifies historical and cultural differences in numerical notation.