neurotechnologies

Neurotechnologies are devices, systems, and techniques that interact with the nervous system to monitor, modulate, or analyze neural activity. They range from non-invasive tools such as electroencephalography and transcranial magnetic stimulation to invasive systems that interface directly with brain tissue. The field includes neural recording and stimulation devices, brain-computer interfaces, neuroimaging, and computational methods for interpreting neural data.

Medical and therapeutic applications include deep brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease and other movement disorders; cochlear implants for deafness; retinal implants for certain kinds of blindness; and neurorehabilitation approaches after stroke or spinal cord injury. Brain-computer interfaces enable people to control computers, prosthetic limbs, or communication devices using neural signals.

Technologies differ by invasiveness: invasive approaches involve implanted electrodes and can provide high-resolution signals; non-invasive approaches include scalp EEG, functional near-infrared spectroscopy, and non-invasive stimulation techniques such as TMS and tDCS. Emerging methods include dense neural recording arrays and optogenetics in animal or specialized clinical contexts.

Ethical, legal, and social considerations include safety, informed consent, privacy of neural data, and potential impacts on autonomy and identity. Regulatory oversight varies by country and technology. The field continues to evolve with research in neuroscience, engineering, and computational analytics, aiming to translate discoveries into therapies, assistive technologies, and advanced interfaces while balancing risk and benefit.