neofunctionalism

Neofunctionalism is a theory of regional integration that emerged in the mid-20th century as an evolution of functionalist ideas, most closely associated with Ernst B. Haas and later scholars. It seeks to explain how economic cooperation in a regional system can generate political integration beyond the initial bargains among states. The central claim is that integration begins with concrete, functionally related economic activities and creates new needs, interests, and institutions that spill over into other policy areas.

Key mechanisms include functional spillover, where cooperation in one sector fosters momentum for further integration in adjacent areas; and political spillover, where technocratic actors, bureaucratic elites, and transnational networks advocate and legitimize deeper integration. Neofunctionalism emphasizes the role of supranational institutions—such as commissions, agencies, and later parliaments—in shaping policy, sometimes operating with a degree of autonomy from national governments. The theory holds that these dynamics can generate a degree of autonomy for the regional system, with domestic actors and interest groups pressing for continued integration.

Historically, neofunctionalism was developed to explain the early stages of European integration, notably the success of the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community. It has influenced EU studies by highlighting the potential for self-sustaining integration driven by functional demands and elite networks, while also acknowledging the limits of technocratic steering.

Critics argue that neofunctionalism overstates technocratic influence and underestimates the central role of state preferences and bargaining. Liberal intergovernmentalists and other approaches have challenged its explanatory power, urging greater attention to national interests and political context.