ionosphere

The ionosphere is a region of Earth's upper atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. Extending roughly from about 60 to 1000 kilometers above the surface, it includes portions of the mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere in which sunlight strips electrons from atoms, creating a layer of free ions and electrons. The ionosphere is not a single uniform layer but a set of ionized regions that vary with time of day, season, and solar activity.

During daytime, solar EUV and X-ray photons ionize gases to form layers labeled D, E, F1, and F2. The D layer (60–90 km) is strongest in daylight and absorbs low-frequency radio waves. The E layer (90–120 km) has moderate density. The F region (about 150–1000+ km) holds the largest electron densities, with the F2 peak near noon. At night the D layer largely disappears and the F region remains the main reflector, though densities fall.

Ionization levels depend on solar activity and exhibit diurnal, seasonal, and latitudinal variation. Solar flares and geomagnetic storms can produce sudden ionospheric disturbances that disrupt radio and satellite signals. Notable short-term phenomena include sporadic E layers and traveling ionospheric disturbances.

Because it can reflect and refract radio waves, the ionosphere enables long-distance high-frequency communications and navigation systems that rely on trans-ionospheric signals. It also introduces delays and phase fluctuations in satellite communications and GPS, sometimes degrading performance during disturbed space weather.

Researchers study the ionosphere with ground-based instruments such as ionosondes, incoherent scatter radars, GPS total electron content measurements, and satellite data. Understanding its behavior is important for telecommunications, aviation, and space weather forecasting.