generalpassive

General passive is a term used in linguistic typology to refer to a broad set of grammatical constructions that express a passive relation between an action and its patient, while the agent is either de-emphasized, explicit, or omitted. It encompasses a range of strategies across languages, including syntactic reorganization (the undergoer becomes the subject), reliance on passive morphology, and periphrastic forms.

Formation mechanisms vary cross-linguistically. In many languages the passive is formed by marking the verb with a passive morpheme or by using an auxiliary plus participle; in others, word order changes or case marking identify the patient in the subject position. Some languages also employ antipassive constructions that reduce or remove the patient from the core clause, while others use reflexive or middle forms that blur agent-patient relations.

Functions of the general passive include focusing discourse on the undergoer or resulting state, downplaying the agent, expressing general statements, or introducing new information where the agent is unknown or irrelevant. The choice of construction can affect perceived agency, emphasis, and formality.

Cross-linguistic variation is substantial. English exemplifies a periphrastic passive with optional agent phrases (The ball was thrown by John). Spanish typically uses ser plus participle (La pelota fue lanzada). Japanese features a distinct passive form with endings like -れる/-られる, which often conveys subjectification or a nuanced sufferer role. Turkish demonstrates passive suffixation on finite verbs.

Limitations include the lack of a single, uniform global passive; the term covers diverse implementations. General passive serves as a unifying descriptor for describing how languages encode patienthood and foreground or background agent information within clauses.