epithets

Epithets are descriptive phrases or adjectives frequently attached to a person’s name, a place, or an entity, serving to highlight a characteristic, quality, or achievement. Historically, they have been employed in literature, oral tradition, and rhetoric to convey information efficiently, to honor or criticize, and to aid memory. In ancient Greek and Roman poetry, epithets such as “swift-footed” for Achilles or “purple‑clad” for the gods functioned as formulaic elements that fitted the strict metrical patterns of oral composition. Similar practices appear in the epic traditions of India, the Norse sagas, and the Hebrew Bible.

In modern usage, epithets can be both positive and negative. Honorific epithets celebrate virtues (e.g., “the Great,” “the Wise”) and are often institutionalized in titles and nicknames. Pejorative epithets, by contrast, are used to insult, marginalize, or dehumanize; such usage raises ethical concerns, particularly when the language reinforces stereotypes or prejudice. Scholars differentiate between “descriptive” epithets, which refer to observable traits, and “evaluative” epithets, which express judgment.

The study of epithets intersects with onomastics, linguistic anthropology, and literary criticism. In onomastic research, epithets are analyzed for patterns of naming practices across cultures and periods. Literary critics examine how epithets shape characterization, theme, and tone, noting that repetition of an epithet can create a rhetorical effect known as anaphora. In the field of rhetoric, epithets function as a stylistic device to persuade or evoke emotion.

Contemporary media and social discourse continue to generate new epithets, often spreading rapidly through digital communication. While some become entrenched as widely accepted nicknames, others remain contested, highlighting the dynamic relationship between language, identity, and power.