enlightenment

Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a broad intellectual and cultural movement in Europe roughly from the late 17th to the 18th century that emphasized reason, science, and human rationality as foundations for knowledge and progress. Thinkers argued that human affairs should be guided by evidence, critical inquiry, and humane ideals rather than by tradition, superstition, or absolute authority. While not uniform across regions, the movement shared commitments to liberty, tolerance, and the improvement of society through education and reform.

Its roots lay in the scientific revolution, the rise of empiricism and rationalism, and reformist currents within natural philosophy and political thought. Key figures include Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot, Immanuel Kant, and David Hume, as well as scientists such as Isaac Newton and his successors. They challenged absolute church prerogatives and argued for natural rights, secular governance, and a rational understanding of nature and society. Religious toleration, deism, and the separation of church and state were among the recurring themes.

Enlightenment culture spread through printed books, journals, and the dissemination of knowledge via projects like the Encyclopédie, edited by Diderot and d’Alembert. Intellectual exchange occurred in salons, coffeehouses, and scientific societies, promoting critical scrutiny, empirical observation, and the use of reason in politics, religion, and education. The movement also advanced social theories about governance, contract, and citizen rights, shaping modern liberal thought.

Impact and legacy of the Enlightenment include influence on political revolutions, legal and educational reforms, and the development of secular, liberal democracies. Its ideas continue to be debated and reinterpreted, with varied regional expressions and critiques that reflect ongoing tensions between authority, religion, and individual freedom.