carbonylation

Carbonylation is a class of chemical reactions in which a carbonyl group (C=O) is introduced into a substrate, typically by the insertion of carbon monoxide (CO) into a chemical bond, often under catalytic conditions. In biochemistry, the term is also used for oxidative modifications of proteins by reactive carbonyl species, which arise from lipid peroxidation or carbohydrate metabolism.

In organic synthesis, hydrocarbonylation (often called hydroformylation) adds CO and H2 across unsaturated bonds to give aldehydes; subsequent hydrogenation yields alcohols. Other carbonylation types include aminocarbonylation (forming amides from aryl or alkyl halides and amines), alkoxycarbonylation (forming esters or carbonates), and various metal-catalyzed carbo- or hydrocarbonylation reactions. Catalysts frequently involve transition metals such as rhodium, cobalt, palladium, or copper.

Industrially important examples include the oxo process for converting alkenes to aldehydes via hydroformylation, and methanol carbonylation to acetic acid using rhodium- or iridium-based catalysts (Monsanto and Cativa processes). These routes illustrate how carbon monoxide and carbonyl insertion into substrates underpin large-scale chemical production, supplying precursors for plastics, solvents, and specialty chemicals.

In biology, protein or nucleic acid carbonylation refers to covalent modification by carbonyl-containing species, often signaling oxidative stress. Protein carbonyls form from aldehydes and ketones derived from lipid peroxidation and glycation, and are used as biomarkers of damage; such modifications can alter structure and function of biomolecules.