bosons

Bosons are particles that have integer spin and obey Bose-Einstein statistics. Unlike fermions, which have half-integer spin and obey the Pauli exclusion principle, multiple bosons can occupy the same quantum state. This property underlies many collective quantum phenomena and governs the behavior of force-carrying particles in quantum field theory.

Bosons can be fundamental or composite. Fundamental bosons include gauge bosons that mediate the fundamental forces: the photon (electromagnetism, spin 1; massless), the gluons (strong interaction, spin 1; massless), and the W± and Z0 bosons (weak interaction, spin 1; massive). The Higgs boson is a scalar boson (spin 0) associated with the Higgs field. Mesons and certain nuclei are composite bosons that have integer spin.

Bosons do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle, which allows many identical bosons to inhabit the same quantum state. This leads to phenomena such as laser operation, superconductivity, and Bose-Einstein condensation at low temperatures.

Historically, the concept arose from Satyendra Nath Bose's work on photons, extended by Albert Einstein. In the Standard Model, bosons are the force carriers and the Higgs boson explains the origin of particle masses. The Higgs boson was experimentally observed in 2012 at the Large Hadron Collider.

Because of their integer spin, bosons play a central role in quantum optics, condensed matter physics, and particle physics, enabling both fundamental theories and practical technologies.