biospecimens

Biospecimens are biological materials obtained from living or deceased organisms for scientific study and clinical testing. In humans, common biospecimens include blood, tissue, urine, saliva, stool, cerebrospinal fluid, and extracted DNA or RNA, as well as cultured cells and organoids. Biospecimens may be used alone or with associated data such as demographic or clinical information. They can be obtained from patients, healthy volunteers, or postmortem donors and are stored in biobanks or laboratory freezers for research and diagnostic purposes.

Collection and handling: Collection is performed under informed consent and with attention to donor privacy. After collection, specimens are labeled, tracked, and processed under standardized protocols to preserve integrity. Preservation methods include freezing at ultra-low temperatures, preservation solutions, or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue for histology. Metadata such as specimen type, collection date, processing history, and storage conditions accompany the sample.

Ethics and regulation: Use of biospecimens is governed by ethical standards and laws that protect privacy and emphasize informed consent, data de-identification, and safe data sharing. Oversight is provided by institutional review boards or ethics committees. Regulations vary by country and region and may address broad or dynamic consent, return of incidental findings, and cross-border transfer of samples.

Applications and challenges: Biospecimens enable research in genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, histopathology, and translational medicine, as well as diagnostic tests and clinical trials. Challenges include pre-analytical variability, standardization of collection and processing, quality assurance, contamination risk, and maintaining long-term viability. Effective biobanking relies on governance structures, standardized annotation, and sustainable access policies.