Tunings

Tunings refer to the set of pitch relationships used to assign frequencies to notes in a musical system or instrument. A tuning defines the octave’s interval structure and the starting pitch, and it can describe both theoretical frameworks (temperament) and practical adjustments (tuning an instrument).

The standard Western tuning is 12-tone equal temperament, with A4 commonly set at 440 Hz. Other systems include just intonation, meantone temperament, and Pythagorean tuning. There are many non-12-tone and microtonal tunings, such as 13-EDO or 19-ET, used in various traditions and experimental contexts.

In practice, tuning procedures vary by instrument. Pianos and other fixed-pitch instruments are tuned by adjusting string frequencies. Fretted instruments use intonation adjustments along the fretboard; guitars commonly use standard tuning E2–E4 (E A D G B E) but employ alternate tunings such as open or drop tunings.

Tuning and temperament are related but distinct. Temperament describes how an instrument structures intervals across keys; tuning concerns the actual pitch values produced. Standards vary by culture, ensemble, and era, with concert pitch revisions occasionally adopted by communities or organizations.