Ploughing

Ploughing is an agricultural tillage operation in which the soil is cut, lifted, and turned over to form furrows. The primary purposes are to prepare a seedbed, bury crop residues and weeds, aerate and drain the soil, and promote root penetration. Ploughing is typically followed by harrowing and leveling to create a suitable surface for planting.

Early ploughs were wooden ards drawn by humans or animals, used in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and China. The iron mouldboard plough, developed in ancient and medieval Europe, allowed turning soil more deeply and efficiently. By the 18th and 19th centuries, mechanically powered ploughs and reversible designs expanded production in many regions.

Common plough types include the mouldboard plough, which inverts the soil; the scratch plough or ard, which cuts but does not invert; the chisel plough, used for deep loosening with minimal surface disturbance; and the subsoil plough, designed to break up hardpan beneath the plough layer. Some systems use two or more bottoms and reversible or fixed configurations.

Ploughing depth varies by soil, crop, and equipment, typically 20–30 cm in temperate regions, shallower in wet soils and deeper for deep rooting crops. It can be performed by draft animals or tractors.

Ploughing can improve seedbed and weed control but can also disrupt soil structure, reduce organic matter, increase erosion risk on slopes, and release stored carbon. In modern agriculture, reduced tillage or no-till systems aim to limit ploughing and preserve soil health, with residue retention and cover crops.

Ploughing remains widely practiced in many regions, though adoption of conservation tillage varies by climate, soil, and farming system.