Parthians

Parthians, also called the Arsacid Parthians, were an Iranian people who founded the Parthian Empire, a major political and cultural power in ancient Iran and Mesopotamia from about 247 BCE to 224 CE. They originated from the Parni tribe in the region of Parthia in northeastern Iran and parts of what is now Turkmenistan. Under Arsaces I, they revolted against the Seleucid Empire and established control over eastern Media and Mesopotamia. The Arsacid dynasty ruled as kings of kings, with a centralized monarch sharing power with extensive satrapies and noble families.

The Parthian political system combined a strong mobile cavalry with semi-autonomous satrapies, allowing practical governance over diverse territories. They relied on horse-archer units and the famous Parthian shot, and employed feudal alliances with local rulers to balance Roman influence on the frontier.

The empire at its height stretched from eastern Anatolia and Armenia to western Iran and parts of central Asia, including Mesopotamia, and served as a major conduit of trade on the Silk Road, linking the Roman world, Parthian domains, and Han China. Parthian coinage and art show Hellenistic influence blended with Iranian styles.

Relations with Rome were characterized by intermittent war and diplomacy. Conflicts included campaigns in the 1st century BCE and the early centuries CE, while the eastern frontier saw shifting alliances and client kingdoms.

Decline came from internal dynastic strife, economic strain, and pressure from the rising Sasanian dynasty. In 224 CE, Ardashir I defeated Artabanus IV, ending the Arsacid era and establishing the Sasanian Empire.