Manichaeism

Manichaeism is a major gnostic religion founded by the Iranian prophet Mani in the 3rd century CE in the Parthian-ruled regions of the Sasanian Empire. It presented itself as a universal faith intended to synthesize elements from Persian Zoroastrianism, Christian thought, and Buddhist ideas, and it sought to offer a comprehensive worldview, ethics, and ritual life for a global audience.

Beliefs center on a dualistic cosmology in which a realm of light is opposed to a realm of darkness. The material world is created by a lesser power or demiurge and is considered a prison for the imprisoned light. Humans carry fragments of this light within their bodies, and salvation consists of liberating or recovering that light through knowledge (gnosis), moral discipline, and initiatory rites. The religious community was traditionally divided into two groups: the Elect, a small, ascetic priestly class responsible for ritual and teaching; and the Hearers, lay adherents who supported the Elect and followed a stringent ethical code.

Manichaean scriptures and texts were produced in several languages and circulated widely along trade routes. Mani himself is said to have authored revelations that were compiled into a body of writings. Translations and adaptations appeared in Syriac, Middle Persian, Coptic, and Chinese, among others, contributing to a rich but fragmentary textual tradition. Ritual life included baptism and other initiatory practices, along with communal prayer and fasting, under a system of ecclesiastical organization centered on the Elect.

Spread and decline: At its height, Manichaeism claimed adherents across the Roman and Sasanian worlds, Central Asia, Egypt, and China. It faced sustained persecution by successive rulers and eventually waned in the medieval period, though it left lasting influences on later religious movements and a diverse set of manuscript remains discovered in places such as Turfan and the Nile valley.