IndiaPakistan

India and Pakistan are two neighboring countries in South Asia with a long and complex shared history. They emerged as separate states in 1947 after the partition of British India, a process that created ongoing disputes over territory, governance, and identity. The Line of Control (LoC) in the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir has been a central fault line, contributing to wars in 1947–48, 1965, and 1971, and a limited conflict in 1999 during the Kargil War. In 1998 both countries conducted nuclear tests, making the region home to nuclear-armed states and shaping strategic behavior and security policy. The status of Jammu and Kashmir itself was altered by India’s 2019 revocation of Article 370 and reorganization of the state, a development Pakistan rejected but which did not resolve the broader dispute.

Diplomatic and legal instruments shape their relations. The Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 remains the primary agreement on river sharing within the Indus basin, though water-related tensions persist. Bilateral ties have fluctuated between periods of candor and confrontation. A notable development was the 2021 ceasefire along the LoC, which reduced cross-border firing and created space for limited diplomacy and humanitarian contacts, though incidents continue and comprehensive political dialogue remains elusive. Confidence-building measures, along with people-to-people contacts, cultural exchanges, and some trade, have played roles in sustaining engagement at varying levels.

Economically, bilateral trade remains limited relative to potential, with formal cross-border trade and some investment, while the nations continue to compete in regional and international contexts. Cultural ties—language, music, cinema, and shared historical experiences—persist, supporting ongoing private and civil-society interactions even amid official tensions. The relationship continues to be shaped by unresolved territorial claims, security concerns, and efforts toward regional stability in South Asia.