GIS3D

GIS3D refers to geographic information systems that manage, analyze, and visualize geographic data in three dimensions (X, Y, Z). It extends conventional 2D GIS by incorporating height or depth to model terrain, buildings, subsurface features, and volumetric phenomena. GIS3D supports multiple data models, including 3D vector representations (extruded polygons, multipatch, solid models), 3D rasters, tetrahedral meshes, and point clouds from LiDAR or photogrammetry. Typical workflows combine terrain models such as DEMs/DTMs with 3D features to create immersive scenes and enable spatial analysis.

Analytical capabilities include terrain and visibility analysis (viewshed, line-of-sight, shadowing), volumetric calculations (cut-and-fill, stockpile volumes), flood and subsidence modeling, and 3D network analysis for routing with vertical constraints. Visualization tools support interactive exploration, measurement, and annotation in web or desktop environments.

Data sources include LiDAR, UAV photogrammetry, terrestrial laser scanning, and conventional survey data, integrated with 2D layers for context. Common standards and formats encompass CityGML for semantic 3D city models, KML, 3D shapefiles, and various interchange formats supported by the Open Geospatial Consortium.

Applications span urban planning, architecture, civil engineering, utilities, environmental science, archaeology, and disaster response. Challenges include large data sizes, processing requirements, alignment between 2D and 3D data, temporal updates, and ensuring consistency of coordinate reference systems and semantic data.