Egoism

Egoism refers to a family of theories that place the self as the primary focus of moral consideration or motivation. In philosophy and related fields, it is usually distinguished by three senses: psychological egoism (a descriptive claim about what motivates actions), ethical egoism (a normative claim about what we ought to do), and rational egoism (a claim about the rational basis for acting in one’s own interest).

Psychological egoism asserts that all human actions are ultimately motivated by self-interest, even when they appear altruistic. It is a controversial claim and difficult to test empirically, with many philosophers arguing that genuinely altruistic motives can exist or that apparent altruism can be compatible with self-interest.

Ethical egoism holds that individuals ought to act in ways that maximize their own long-term self-interest. It contrasts with altruism, which prioritizes others, and with utilitarian or deontological theories that weigh the interests of others or follow universal rules. Ethical egoism can be framed as personal (one ought to act for one’s own benefit) or universal (everyone ought to promote their own interests).

Rational egoism posits that acting in one’s rational self-interest is the rational or correct approach to life. Proponents often argue that rational self-interest yields better overall outcomes and aligns with personal flourishing. Ayn Rand is associated with a contemporary form of rational/ethical egoism, often linked to Objectivism, though interpretations vary.

Historically, egoist ideas appear in the works of Thomas Hobbes, who emphasizes self-preservation; Max Stirner, who champions egoistic individualism; and later critics and reformulators in moral philosophy. Egoism remains debated, with criticisms that it can justify exploitation and undercut social cooperation, while supporters maintain it clarifies the rightful aim of moral agents.