Dukkha

Dukkha (Pali) or duḥkha (Sanskrit) is a central term in Buddhist philosophy commonly translated as suffering, dissatisfaction, or unsatisfactoriness. In early Buddhist literature it designates the fundamental unease that characterizes ordinary experience.

As one of the three marks of existence, dukkha describes that all conditioned phenomena are unsatisfactory and transitory. It signals the pervasive sense that nothing within the cycle of birth and death provides lasting safety or happiness. The other marks are anicca (impermanence) and anatta (non-self).

Buddhist scholastic texts distinguish three aspects of dukkha: dukkha-dukkha, the ordinary pain and unhappiness of life; viparinama-dukkha, the suffering caused by change as moments of happiness turn into disappointment; and sankhara-dukkha, the inherent unsatisfactoriness of conditioned phenomena.

Dukkha arises through craving (tanha) and grasping, conditioned by ignorance (avidya) about the true nature of reality. It is influenced by dependent origination, so even seemingly pleasant experiences can give rise to later dissatisfaction.

Four Noble Truths identify dukkha, its origin, its cessation, and the path to its end. The path is described as the Eightfold Path, a practical program of ethical conduct, meditation, and wisdom. Through renunciation of craving and misunderstanding, individuals seek to end dukkha and, in Buddhist teaching, attain Nirvana.