Anfal

Anfal refers to the Iraqi government's military campaign against Kurdish populations in Iraqi Kurdistan, conducted from 1986 to 1989 as part of Saddam Hussein's efforts to suppress Kurdish autonomy and dissent. The campaign was planned and executed under the direction of senior regime leaders, including Ali Hassan al-Majid, known as Chemical Ali, and involved the regular army, security services, and allied militias. Its stated aims included dismantling Kurdish armed resistance, punishing dissidents, and enforcing population control.

During Anfal, hundreds of villages were destroyed or depopulated, and tens of thousands of people were killed or displaced. The operations employed mass killings, forced relocations, and widespread seizure of property. The campaign is also associated with the use of chemical weapons, with aerial attacks that caused civilian casualties; the Halabja chemical attack in March 1988 is the most infamous episode linked to the broader Anfal continuum.

The campaign effectively ended by 1989 and preceded the broader geopolitical shifts following the Iran–Iraq War. In the aftermath, mass graves were uncovered in Iraqi Kurdistan, providing evidence of large-scale executions and disappearances. Human rights organizations and Kurdish authorities have described Anfal as genocide or crimes against humanity, though interpretations vary by jurisdiction and context.

In 2006, key regime figures were tried by the Iraqi Special Tribunal in connection with Anfal; Ali Hassan al