2ndcentury

The 2nd century CE refers to the period roughly from 101 to 200 CE (though some historians extend it from 100 to 199). It was a time of political consolidation, economic exchange, and cultural development across several major regions, notably the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty, with continuing interactions along the Silk Road.

In the Roman world, the century saw expansion and consolidation of Empire boundaries. Trajan (98–117) extended Roman rule to its greatest extent, including Dacia and parts of Armenia and Mesopotamia. Hadrian (117–138) focused on frontier defense and monumental building, exemplified by Hadrian’s Wall and extensive construction projects. The Antonine dynasty, including Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, presided over a prolonged period of relative peace known as the Pax Romana, though the era was later unsettled by the Antonine Plague (c. 165–180), which affected populations and military recruitment and foreshadowed broader strains on the empire.

In China, the Eastern Han Dynasty governed a vast centralized state with expanding commercial links along the Silk Road. Economic activity included iron production and agricultural development, supporting urban growth and state administration. Late in the century, social unrest culminated in the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184, signaling broader internal challenges that would contribute to subsequent fragmentation of the Han and the rise of regional powers.

Other regions were interconnected by transregional trade networks between Rome and India through Parthian and Kushan intermediaries. In the realm of ideas, early Christian communities began to take shape within the Roman world and produce theological writings, while scientific and geographic knowledge from the period—such as works associated with Ptolemy and Galen—laid foundations that influenced later centuries.

Overall, the 2nd century CE was a period of expansion, integration, and emerging challenges that shaped future transitions across several civilizations.