18651930

1865–1930, sometimes viewed as the long nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, cover major transitions in politics, society, and technology. The period begins with the conclusion of the American Civil War in 1865 and the abolition of slavery, while nations around the world pursue modernization and imperial expansion.

The late 19th century is characterized by rapid industrialization, the spread of rail networks, electrification, and new corporate forms, often accompanied by urban growth and social reform movements. In Europe, nation-states consolidated or redefined borders; the Meiji Restoration in Japan (1868) accelerated modernization; the scramble for Africa intensified imperial competition.

The early 20th century saw transformative conflict and upheaval. World War I (1914–1918) reshaped economies and geopolitics, leading to the Versailles settlement and the creation of new states. The 1917 Russian Revolution led to the establishment of a socialist state and influenced global politics. The interwar period also witnessed political experimentation and cultural shifts, with the rise of modernist movements in art and literature, and scientific advances in aviation, medicine, and technology.

The 1920s brought economies and cultures into a more connected world, with mass media and consumer goods expanding access. However, the decade ended with the onset of the Great Depression after the 1929 stock market crash, signaling a major economic downturn that affected many countries by 1930.

Across regions, 1865–1930 formed a transitional era that set patterns for the interwar era, including industrial organization, imperial legacies, social reform, and the political upheavals that would shape the rest of the century.