universalen

Universalen is a term used in philosophy to refer to universals, abstract properties or kinds that can be instantiated by multiple particular things. The plural form appears in some Germanic-language philosophical writing. In this context, universals are contrasted with particulars, such as a red apple, which participates in the universal property of redness.

Historically, the discussion of universals dates to ancient Greece. Plato argued for transcendent forms that exist independently of material objects. Aristotle offered a different view, proposing immanent universals that reside in things themselves. In medieval philosophy, scholars debated whether universals are real entities (realism) or names without independent existence (nominalism). The Scholastic era produced nuanced positions, including moderate realism, which locates universals as real features of the world but accessible through language and thought.

Modern discussions broaden the landscape. Trope theory treats properties as particularized instances rather than universal forms. Conceptualism and various forms of nominalism challenge the objectivity or existence of universals, while some naturalistic approaches seek to ground universals in cognitive or linguistic structures. The debate continues to influence ontology, philosophy of language, and science, where how properties are shared or abstracted affects theories of classification, explanation, and measurement.

See also: universals, nominalism, realism, trope theory, ontology.