torpedoes

Torpedoes are self-propelled underwater weapons designed to deliver an explosive charge to a target, either by homing in on it or by following a predetermined path. They are launched from submarines, surface ships, aircraft, and, in limited cases, coastal platforms, and are used primarily for anti-ship and anti-submarine warfare.

The concept of underwater projectiles dates to the 19th century. The first practical self-propelled torpedo was developed in the 1860s by Italian inventor Giovanni Luppis and British engineer Robert Whitehead, leading to the Whitehead torpedo. It became the basis for modern torpedoes and spurred extensive development through the World Wars and into the postwar era.

Propulsion and guidance have evolved considerably. Early torpedoes used compressed-air engines and were hazardous to handle; later designs employed steam, petrol, or electric propulsion. Modern torpedoes usually rely on electric batteries or compact turbine drives and use control fins and hydroplanes to adjust depth and course. Guidance progressed from gyroscopic control to wire-guidance during the mid-20th century, and most contemporary torpedoes employ autonomous homing using active and/or passive sonar, with some models incorporating wake-hollow or other terminal guidance.

There are lightweight torpedoes intended for anti-submarine warfare and anti-ship roles, and heavier variants used primarily by submarines and some surface ships. They can be launched from torpedo tubes, vertical launch systems, or aircraft into the water, and carry high-explosive warheads designed for penetrating hulls or disabling submerged targets. Countermeasures include decoys, noise-makers, and anti-torpedo systems designed to disrupt guidance and tracking.

Today torpedoes remain a central element of naval warfare, with ongoing advances in range, speed, guidance, and survivability.