socialisation

Socialisation is the lifelong process by which individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors that enable them to participate in their society. Through socialisation, people acquire language, gender roles, moral judgments, and social skills, shaping their identities and status within groups. The process begins in infancy and continues across life stages as people encounter new roles and institutions.

Agents of socialisation include family after birth (primary socialisation), educational institutions (schools and classrooms), peer groups, workplaces, religious and cultural organisations, media, and increasingly digital platforms. Primary socialisation occurs early, teaching basic norms and language, while secondary socialisation introduces more specialized roles and expectations, such as citizenship, occupational roles, and social norms in different contexts. Anticipatory socialisation involves adopting the standards of a role one has not yet attained to ease future transitions; reverse socialisation occurs when individuals or groups challenge or reshape prevailing norms.

The process often involves mechanisms such as imitation, reinforcement, sanctions, and internalization of norms. Social learning theory emphasizes observation and imitation; symbolic interactionism focuses on how social reality is constructed through everyday interactions and the development of the self. Functionalist perspectives view socialisation as essential for social cohesion and the transmission of culture, while conflict theories highlight how socialisation can reproduce inequality and power relations.

Socialisation varies across cultures and over time, influenced by economic conditions, technology, and institutions. In modern societies, digital media and global interconnectedness also contribute to ongoing socialisation beyond traditional settings.