siteformation

Site formation refers to the set of natural and cultural processes that create, modify, or destroy archaeological contexts from the moment of deposition until discovery. It shapes what survives in the archaeological record and how researchers interpret it. Formation processes are typically categorized as natural or cultural.

Natural formation processes include sedimentation, erosion, soil formation, chemical alteration, and bioturbation by roots, burrowing animals, or microbial activity. Climate events, water flow, wind transport, and gravity can relocate or mix materials, producing stratigraphic mixing or palimpsests where different occupational episodes are recorded in the same layer. Cultural formation processes involve human activities that add, remove, recycle, reuse, or disturb deposits, such as habitation, refuse disposal, construction, burning, or reoccupation of spaces.

Understanding site formation is essential for interpreting context, dating, and artifact associations. It helps distinguish primary depositional contexts from secondary ones, identify post-depositional disturbances, and assess preservation potential. It also informs excavation strategies and sampling, aiding in the reconstruction of past behaviors and environmental conditions.

Methods used to study site formation include geoarchaeology and sedimentology, micromorphology and thin-section analysis, stratigraphic profiling, taphonomic analysis, and spatial or geographic information system approaches. By documenting formation processes, archaeologists aim to separate human choices from natural rearrangements, resulting in more robust reconstructions of past lifeways and landscapes.