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Sensors are devices that detect and respond to some type of input from the physical environment. The specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure, or any one of a great number of other environmental phenomena. The output is typically a signal that is converted to human-readable form or to another signal that can be interpreted by a computer or other device.

Sensors are used in a vast array of applications. In everyday life, they are found in smartphones to detect orientation and touch, in thermostats to measure room temperature, and in cars for detecting obstacles and monitoring engine performance. In industrial settings, sensors are crucial for process control, automation, and safety. They can monitor temperature, pressure, flow rates, and chemical composition in manufacturing plants. In scientific research, sensors are used to gather data in fields like environmental monitoring, astronomy, and medicine.

The fundamental principle behind most sensors involves a physical or chemical change that occurs when the sensor interacts with the environment. This change is then transduced into an electrical signal. For example, a thermistor's electrical resistance changes with temperature, while a photodiode generates an electrical current when exposed to light. The design and materials used in a sensor are tailored to the specific phenomenon it is intended to detect, ensuring accuracy and reliability in its measurements.