landforms

Landforms are the natural features of the Earth's surface that result from long-term interactions among geological forces, climate, and living systems. They include mountains, plateaus, plains, hills, valleys, basins, deserts, coastlines, and a wide range of smaller forms such as dunes, caves, and cliffs. Landforms arise through processes that shape the crust, including tectonic uplift and folding, faulting, volcanic activity, as well as erosion, deposition, weathering, and glaciation.

Landforms are often grouped by their origins and the processes that shape them. Tectonic and volcanic landforms form from plate movements and eruptions, producing mountain belts, rifts, and volcanic cones. Erosional landforms are carved by water, ice, and wind, delivering features such as valleys, canyons, and arches. Depositional landforms result from sediment accumulation, including deltas, alluvial fans, beaches, and sand plains. Coastal landforms are shaped by waves and tides, creating cliffs, beaches, spits, and barrier islands. Karst landscapes develop through the dissolution of soluble rocks and include caves and sinkholes.

Prominent examples include the uplifted Himalayas, the flat Great Plains, the arid Sahara, river canyons like the Grand Canyon, and glaciated fjords in northern regions. Landforms influence climate, biodiversity, human settlement, and resource distribution, and they also determine natural hazards such as floods, landslides, and drought. Studying landforms involves mapping, field observation, and spatial analysis to understand past processes and predict future change.