empress

An empress is a female sovereign or the wife of an emperor. The term covers empress regnant, who rules in her own right, and empress consort, the wife of an emperor. In some contexts, empress dowager refers to the widow of a ruler who may wield regency powers and influence over state affairs while a new ruler is chosen or comes of age. The English word derives from Latin imperatrix, feminine of imperator, through Old French and Middle English.

Across cultures, empresses have appeared in many imperial systems. In Europe, the title has been associated with empires such as the Holy Roman Empire and, later, among emperors in Russia; in the British Empire, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in 1876, a title used until 1947. In East Asia, China produced empresses who sometimes ruled directly or as powerful consorts; Wu Zetian is a notable example of an empress regnant who established her own dynasty in the 7th century. Japan recognized female sovereigns in its imperial history as well, although the titles and roles varied by period.

Notable empresses include Wu Zetian of China (emperor in her own right), Catherine the Great of Russia (empress regnant from 1762), and Cixi, who exercised power as empress dowager during the Qing dynasty. The status of an empress—whether consort, regnant, or dowager—has frequently reflected broader patterns of succession, governance, and court politics in different eras and regions.