eighteenthcentury

The eighteenth century, generally defined as the years from 1700 to 1799, was a period of major transition in Europe and the Atlantic world. Some historians describe a longer span—the long eighteenth century—from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the final defeats of Napoleonic Europe in 1815.

Intellectual life was dominated by the Enlightenment, which emphasized reason, science, and inquiry into politics, religion, and society. Thinkers such as Voltaire, Locke, Rousseau, and Kant influenced political theory, education, and consent of government. Scientific progress built on Newtonian foundations, while practical technologies—accelerated by improvements in textiles, metallurgy, and medicine—helped lay the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution.

Politically, the century saw the consolidation of constitutional and bureaucratic practices in Britain, expansion of colonial empires, and the growth of global trade networks. Military conflicts such as the Seven Years’ War reshaped power balances. The latter part of the century was marked by transformative revolutions: the American Revolution (1775–1783) and the French Revolution (1789), which challenged established hierarchies and inspired reform movements elsewhere. Slavery and abolition movements emerged and intensified toward the end of the century, influencing economic and political change across the Atlantic world.

Culturally, the period witnessed stylistic shifts from Baroque and Rococo toward neoclassicism in art and architecture, as well as flourishing music by composers such as Haydn and Mozart. The century's scientific and ideological advances contributed to changing conceptions of rights, governance, and knowledge, shaping modern institutions even as many regions remained entangled in imperial rule and trade networks. The eighteenth century thus laid foundational elements for modern politics, science, and culture, with enduring and uneven legacies.