cyberwarfare

Cyberwarfare refers to state-sponsored or state-directed use of digital tools and networks to achieve strategic or political objectives during armed conflict or in preparation for it. It encompasses offensive operations designed to disrupt, degrade, deny, or destroy information systems, communications, and critical infrastructure, as well as covert espionage, influence campaigns, and support for conventional military actions. Cyberwarfare can occur in peacetime coercion, during conflict, or as part of hybrid warfare.

Actors and capabilities: Primary actors are nation-states and their aligned groups, though some episodes involve extensive non-state participation. Tactics include malware, ransomware, distributed denial-of-service attacks, supply-chain compromise, data manipulation, and targeted attacks against command and control systems. Typical targets are power grids, financial networks, transport and energy infrastructure, government networks, and military installations. Attribution is frequently uncertain, complicating responses and risk of escalation.

Legal and ethical considerations: International law addresses sovereignty, non-intervention, and use of force, but codified rules for cyber operations are evolving. The Tallinn Manual and related scholarship discuss how cyber operations may constitute armed force or lawful responses, while many norms discourage harm to civilians and critical infrastructure. Proportionality and precaution apply but gaps remain in enforcement and attribution.

Notable incidents: The 2007 attacks on Estonia, the 2010 Stuxnet operation, the 2014 Sony Pictures intrusion, and subsequent disruptions targeting Ukrainian infrastructure, along with late-2020s supply-chain intrusions such as the SolarWinds campaign, illustrate the variety of cyber operations that can accompany or enable physical and strategic effects. The Colonial Pipeline incident in 2021 highlighted the vulnerability of civilian infrastructure to cyber disruption.

Defense and policy: Defending against cyberwarfare emphasizes resilience, multi-layer security, rapid attribution and response, international norms, information sharing, and public–private cooperation. Preparedness includes backups, network segmentation, incident response planning, and continuity of operations.