aliénation

Aliénation is a term used in philosophy and social science to denote a state in which individuals feel estranged or detached from aspects of their life, such as the products of their labor, their own activities, their fellow human beings, or their own human potential. The concept has a long history in German philosophy and French sociology, with Entfremdung and related social theories adopting a similar sense of estrangement.

In Marxist theory, alienation refers to the estrangement that workers experience under capitalist production. Marx identifies four interrelated forms: alienation from the product of labor, because the worker does not own or control what is produced; alienation from the process of labor, because the work is performed under external control and not chosen by the worker; alienation from one’s own human nature or species-being, because labor under capital treats humans as a means to an end; and alienation from other people, because relationships become mediated by market relations and competition. The concept is used to critique capitalism and to explain social and political dissatisfaction.

Beyond Marx, alienation appears in diverse contexts. In sociology, Durkheim’s notion of anomie describes a breakdown of norms that can leave individuals feeling disconnected. Max Weber’s analysis of rationalization and disenchantment portrays alienation within modern bureaucratic and technologized life. In contemporary usage, alienation can refer to feelings of isolation in urban life, alienation from institutions or political processes, or a sense of estrangement within cultures or communities. The term is also used in psychology and psychotherapy to describe subjective experiences of estrangement or detachment.