Neogene

The Neogene is a geologic period within the Cenozoic Era that spans roughly 23.03 to 2.58 million years ago. It follows the Paleogene and precedes the Quaternary. The period includes two epochs: the Miocene (23.03–5.333 Ma) and the Pliocene (5.333–2.58 Ma). The name Neogene derives from the Greek neos ("new") and genes ("born"), reflecting the appearance or expansion of modern life during this interval.

Climatically, the Neogene continued the overall cooling trend that began in the Paleogene. Global climates became cooler and more seasonal, and in many regions aridity increased. These changes contributed to the spread of grasslands and the diversification of herbivorous mammals and their predators. Tectonically, major mountain belts were uplifted (notably the Himalayas and the Alps), influencing climate and ocean circulation. The closure of marine connections such as the Tethys Sea and, later, the formation of the Isthmus of Panama helped drive changes in ocean currents and regional climates.

Biologically, the Neogene saw substantial evolution and diversification of many modern plant and animal lineages. Mammals and birds diversified, with many modern families becoming recognizable; grasses expanded, promoting the spread of grazing ecosystems. In the late Neogene, the first hominins appeared in Africa, and the genus Homo emerged near the end of this period. The Neogene ends with the onset of the Quaternary, characterized by repeated glaciations and further megafaunal changes.