Materjale

Materjale, in a general sense, are substances used to manufacture products and structures. The term covers raw materials that supply energy and chemical constituents, as well as finished or semi-finished substances designed for specific functions. In engineering and science, the study of materials focuses on how their structure at the atomic and molecular levels governs macroscopic properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, weight, durability, and response to heat or electricity.

Most materials are grouped into metals, polymers, ceramics, composites, and natural materials. Metals include steels and aluminum and are valued for strength and conductivity; polymers are often lightweight plastics; ceramics are hard and heat-resistant; composites combine materials to achieve superior properties; natural materials include wood, stone, and bone.

Materials are shaped and enhanced by processing methods such as casting, forming, joining, and additive manufacturing. Properties are characterized by tests including tensile, impact, hardness, and measurements of thermal and electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance. Standards from ISO and ASTM guide material specification to ensure compatibility and safety in engineering applications.

Selecting materials involves balancing cost, performance, manufacturability, and environmental impact across the life cycle. Sustainability concerns focus on extraction, energy use, recyclability, and end-of-life disposal; circular economy approaches aim to reuse materials and reduce waste.

Historically, materials have driven technology: stones and wood in ancient times, metals in the Bronze and Iron Ages, followed by polymers and advanced composites in modern eras. The field of materials science studies the relationships between composition, structure, processing, and properties to design better materials.