Incan

Incan refers to the Inca people and their empire, Tawantinsuyu, the largest pre-Columbian state in western South America. Centered in the Andes with Cusco as capital, the realm stretched from southern Colombia to northern Chile. The period most associated with the empire is roughly 1438 to 1533, though distant communities retained some autonomy until the late 16th century.

Government and society: The Sapa Inca, regarded as a divine ruler, held supreme authority and governed through a centralized bureaucracy with provincial governors. The mit’a labor system and state stores coordinated public works and resource distribution. The vast road network known as the Qhapaq Ñan linked regions, with chasqui messengers preserving rapid communication.

Economy and culture: The state exercised control over agriculture, textiles, and metalwork. Agriculture relied on terracing and irrigation; grain and maize reserves supported urban populations. Quechua served as lingua franca across diverse peoples. Religion centered on the sun god Inti, with ceremonies and ancestor veneration forming part of political life.

Architecture and engineering: The Inca built durable masonry, stonework, and extensive terraces. Notable sites include Machu Picchu and Sacsayhuamán, reflecting sophisticated urban planning and engineering. The empire also produced textiles and metal objects valued across the Andes.

Decline and legacy: The 1532 arrival of Spanish conquerors under Francisco Pizarro led to rapid collapse of centralized authority. The last Sapa Inca, Túpac Amaru, was executed in 1572. Today, Inca heritage endures in Quechua-speaking communities and in the archaeological remains that attract scholarly and public interest.