Hydrolýze

Hydrolýze, or hydrolysis, is a chemical process in which a compound reacts with water, leading to the cleavage of bonds and the formation of smaller molecules. Water acts as a reactant and often provides protons or hydroxide ions. Hydrolysis can be catalyzed by acids, bases, or enzymes, and its direction and rate depend on the substrate and conditions.

In organic chemistry, hydrolysis refers to bond cleavage by water, frequently with catalytic assistance. Common examples include ester hydrolysis yielding carboxylic acids (or their salts) and alcohols; amide hydrolysis producing carboxylic acids and amines; and glycosidic bond hydrolysis converting polysaccharides into monosaccharides.

In biology, hydrolysis is central to digestion and metabolism. Proteases hydrolyze peptide bonds in proteins; carbohydrases such as amylase break down starch into simpler sugars; lipases cleave triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis releases energy, yielding adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi).

Mechanistically, acid-catalyzed hydrolysis uses hydronium to activate substrates and speed nucleophilic water attack, while base-catalyzed hydrolysis employs hydroxide as the nucleophile. Enzymatic hydrolysis is highly specific, with active-site residues and cofactors guiding water activation and transition-state stabilization.

Applications and significance include industrial and environmental contexts. Hydrolysis is used to break down esters in saponification, to convert starch to glucose in food processing, and to decompose polymers. In medicine and biology, it underpins nutrient digestion, drug metabolism, and energy transfer processes.