Herbivorie

Herbivory, or herbivorie, is a feeding relationship in which animals consume plant material. It covers a wide range of interactions, from insects nibbling leaves to mammals grazing on grasses or browsing shrubs, and includes consumption of seeds, fruits, roots, and stems. Herbivory is a major component of many ecosystems and contrasts with carnivory and omnivory.

Herbivores vary in diet and feeding mode. Grazers feed mainly on grass or herbaceous plants close to ground, while browsers feed on leaves from trees and shrubs. Folivores eat leaves; frugivores focus on fruit; granivores on seeds. Some herbivores specialize, whereas others are generalists.

Plants defend themselves with physical defenses like thorns and tough tissues, and chemical defenses such as tannins, alkaloids, and toxins. Herbivores have evolved adaptations such as specialized teeth, multi-chambered stomachs, fermentation chambers, and gut microbiota to break down plant tissue and detoxify compounds. Some excrete large volumes or rely on gut bacteria; ruminants have foregut fermentation; horses may use hindgut fermentation.

Ecological implications include regulation of plant community composition, nutrient cycling, and energy flow. Herbivory can promote plant diversity by preventing competitive exclusion, or reduce plant biomass during outbreaks. It also creates complex food webs with predators and parasites controlling herbivore populations.

Human contexts include agriculture, forestry, and pest management, where herbivory affects crop yields and forest regeneration. Studying herbivory helps understand ecosystem functioning and the coevolution of plants and animals.