Ghaznavid

The Ghaznavid dynasty was a Turkic-origin, Persianate Muslim imperial state centered in Ghazni (present-day Afghanistan) that ruled from about 977 to 1186 CE. It was founded by Sabuktigin, a former slave-soldier who rose to power after succeeding the line of Alp-Tigin; Ghazni remained the capital. At its height the empire stretched from eastern Iran into the Indian subcontinent, encompassing parts of present-day Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, and northwestern India. Persian served as the language of administration and culture, reflecting the dynasty’s Persianate character alongside its Turkic military elite.

Under Mahmud of Ghazni (r. 998–1030), the Ghaznavids expanded dramatically. He extended control into Khorasan and Transoxiana and led numerous campaigns into the Indian subcontinent, bringing wealth and tributary settlements from Punjab, Sindh, and western India. These raids helped establish Muslim rule in parts of the subcontinent and elevated Ghaznavid prestige, though lasting political consolidation often remained limited outside the core regions.

Culturally, the Ghaznavids were patrons of Persian literature and science. The court hosted scholars such as Al-Biruni, whose works on astronomy, geography, and comparative religion reflected a cosmopolitan outlook. The administration fused Turkic military norms with Persian bureaucratic practices, employing ghulams and a centralized revenue system while minting coins in the rulers’ names.

Decline began in the 11th century amid rising pressures from the Seljuks, Khwarazmids, and eventually the Ghurids. The Ghurids captured Ghazni in the mid-to-late 12th century, and by about 1186 the Ghaznavid state effectively ended, with its territories absorbed into the Ghurid Empire and successor polities.